Given its utilitarian nature, promoting active transportation (non-motorized modes, such as walking, or cycling to and from destinations) through policy, systems, and environmental change is acknowledged as “one of the leading evidence-based strategies to increase physical activity regardless of age, income, racial/ethnic background, ability, or disability” (Young et al., 2020, pe167). The Canadian Public Health Association endorses this position while also highlighting the co-benefits of active transportation (AT) in improving health by reducing air pollution and reducing health inequities (Perrotta et al., 2021). Similarly, the United Nations (n.d.) recognizes the importance of AT in making communities more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable in the face of climate change pressures and increased demand for energy.

However, engagement in AT tends to be relatively low in most developed countries (Olsen et al., 2017; Whitfield et al., 2020). In Canada, the 2021 ParticipACTION Report Card on Physical Activity for Adults graded Active Travel as an F. This was based on data demonstrating that only 7% of adults living in Canada used AT in commuting to work (ParticipACTION, 2021), which remained relatively stable during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (Statistics Canada, 2020). While less is known about AT to destinations other than work or school among Canadian adults, the data does imply a strategic intervention focus on adult AT may have significant population health impact. The launch of Canada’s first National Active Transportation Strategy (Infrastructure Canada, 2021) and an associated Active Transportation Fund of $400 million over five years for building and expanding networks of pathways, bike lanes, trails, and pedestrian bridges is a step in that direction.

Aligned with socioecological frameworks (Götschi, de Nazelle and Brand, 2017; Spence and Lee, 2003), supporting AT requires multi-level intervention addressing policy, environmental, social, and individual factors. An “upstream” focus on policy change is likely to facilitate AT equitably. For instance, Young et al. (2020) recommended three levels of AT policies: the macroscale of mixed and compact land use, the mesoscale of safe pedestrian and bicycle networks, infrastructure (e.g., Complete Streets policies), and the microscale of design interventions such as safety and traffic calming measures. Given the global commitments to sustainable transportation (United Nations, n.d.), governments at all levels have responsibility to establish and coordinate policies that promote and facilitate AT within their respective jurisdictions (Bull et al., 2004).

However, public resistance to policy may deter implementation and adherence, and ultimately result in its withdrawal from consideration (Li, Shryane and Elliot, 2017). Conversely, public support for different policy interventions may be a prerequisite for decision makers in developing and implementing those policies. Public approval will be influenced by the varying level of intrusiveness of any policy interventions (Diepeveen et al., 2013; Yun et al., 2019). The Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2007) proposes “an intervention ladder” as a useful way of conceptualizing levels of intrusiveness, whereby policy categories are positioned from most to least restrictive (i.e., top to bottom) in the following order: eliminate choices, restrict choices, use of disincentives, use of incentives, change the default policy, enable choice, and provide information. Policies nearer the top of the ladder require greater justification regarding their benefits to ensure that interference and financial costs are proportionate. The question is, to what extent do Canadians approve of various policy actions to facilitate AT?

Therefore, the objectives of this study were to examine public support for AT policy options, varying by intrusiveness, among a representative sample of Canadians, and to identify demographic and AT behavioural predictors of support for each policy approach.

As shown in Table 1, a little over half of respondents were women (50.8%), most were aged 45 years or older (56.6%), employed or in school (63.7%), had some post-secondary education (82.3%), reported a household income of greater than $60,000 (55.7%), and resided in a city (65.6%). The proportion of Canadian adults walking/wheeling and cycling for AT, at least once per week, were 37.3% and 13.8%, respectively.

Most policy actions to promote AT were supported by Canadians although the level of support varied by the type of policy actions and by demographics and AT behaviour. The less intrusive policy approaches that targeted the enablement of choice, creation of safe transportation infrastructure, and the use of incentives were the most favoured. Conversely, a minority of Canadians supported policies that facilitate AT using disincentives and restriction of choices. For instance, those respondents who do not actively commute were more likely to oppose the more intrusive policies such as charging taxes on motor vehicles and increasing parking rates to subsidize AT. These findings are consistent with previous research showing that public support for PA policy interventions generally tends to decrease as their level of intrusiveness increases (McGetrick et al., 2019; Molner et al., 2023; Yun et al., 2018). Similarly, decision makers are less likely to endorse obesity prevention policies that are deemed to be more intrusive or restrictive (Raine et al., 2014).

In terms of demographics, level of support for AT policies was higher among women and those with post-secondary education. It was also generally stronger among younger respondents. This may reflect generational differences in attitudes about climate change and the need for action (Liu, Shryane and Elliot, 2022; Smith, Kim and Son, 2017). Speculatively, public support for AT policies may grow with age cohort progression (Hamilton, Hartter and Bell, 2019). Given that AT is identified as an integral part of any solution for addressing climate change (Alessio et al., 2021; Brand, 2021; United Nations, n.d.), one strategy for promotion could include focused social marketing campaigns with an emphasis on climate change benefits targeting younger adults and an emphasis on the health benefits of AT for older adults (Plotnikoff, Wright and Karunamuni, 2004).

Where Canadians lived had some bearing on their support for AT policies. The strongest associations were noted by region, with those in Western Canada being the least supportive and those in central and eastern Canada being more supportive. This may reflect some combination of political orientation and size of communities. For instance, much of western Canada is currently represented by more conservative leaning governments at both provincial and federal levels. Previous research shows that political orientation is associated with support for healthy public policy, with the more conservative orientations being less supportive of such policies (Ashley et al., 2001; McGeterick et al., 2019; Molner et al., 2023; Montez et al., 2022; Yun et al., 2019). As for location of residence, those living in cities were more favourable towards tax credits for public transit passes.

Assessing public support for AT policies may inform municipal, provincial, and national policy and planning efforts (Cradock et al., 2018). Policies can influence behavior by facilitating interventions that are mediated by individuals’ perceived capability, opportunity, and motivation (Michie, van Stralen and West, 2011). In the case of AT, environmental and social planning policies may work via education and environmental restructuring to then influence knowledge (i.e., Capability) and social norms (i.e., Opportunity). Thus, an evaluation of Canada’s National Active Transportation Strategy (Infrastructure Canada, 2021) should include tracking of public support for various initiatives to stimulate engagement of AT. The current data could serve as a baseline in that regard. One example would be how older adults perceive AT promotion and whether they are as receptive to the roll out of the national strategy. Furthermore, the multi-sectoral collaboration requited to foster AT promotion and delivery of services likely requires diffusion of policies that could be informed by these findings. For instance, separate strategies currently exist in Canada for promoting AT (Infrastructure Canada, 2021), PA (Public Health Agency of Canada (2018), sport (Sport Canada, 2012), and recreation (Canadian Parks and Recreation Association, 2015). The extent to which common objectives and actions can be identified across these frameworks for getting the population moving will likely determine success.

Strengths of this study include it being among the first to examine policy support for AT in a representative sample of Canadian adults. However, it is not without limitations that should be acknowledged. First, self-reports are susceptible to bias. This is even more the case when asking individuals about hypothetical scenarios (Burgess, Spence and Wild, 2010). Thus, respondents may have been overly positive about support for initiatives with which they may have no experience (e.g., redevelopment of neighbourhoods, the provision of bike lanes in their community). Second, data collection occurred during the latter part of the COVID-19 pandemic and some respondents may have still been limited or restricted in their travel choices. Though the overall PA of Canadian adults may not have been impacted by the pandemic (Colley and Watt, 2022), many either chose to or were required to work from home, which could have influenced the type of responses garnered on our survey. Furthermore, there was much public demand for various policy initiatives in Canadian municipalities, such as the construction of temporary bike lanes, to facilitate commuting while adhering to social distancing recommendations (Buckner, 2020; Pike, 2020). Thus, the appetite for policy interventions for AT as reflected in our findings may have been affected by this temporary interruption to daily routines and concerns about avoiding close contact with others. Third, due to the sampling techniques employed, no Canadians from the territories were included in this sample. We recognize this as a limitation because those individuals residing in remote areas of northern Canada may have different perspectives on AT policy initiatives. Finally, though the reliability of survey panels may be questioned, much effort is made to ensure they deliver representative samples and similar types of crowd sourcing have demonstrated good reliability (Peer et al., 2017).

In the most comprehensive survey conducted on the topic to date, most policy actions to promote AT were supported by Canadians although the level of support varied by the type of policy actions and by demographics and self-reported AT behaviour. The challenge remains how to implement efficacious strategies that require a combination of public support and political will (Gelius et al., 2020; Raine et al., 2012), especially those that are considered more intrusive. An emphasis on issues that appeal to younger adults (e.g., climate change mitigation) along with demonstrated government leadership (Craddock et al., 2018) could be an effective approach for fostering further support for AT initiatives.